Trigeminal neuropathies following dental anesthetic blocks: a review of the literature
Introduction
Trigeminal nerve injuries (TNI) represent possible complications associated with oral and maxillofacial procedures. The trigeminal nerve, the main cranial nerve responsible for sensory innervation of the face and oral cavity and control of masticatory muscles (1), is susceptible to damage during various dental interventions (2). While certain etiologies of TNI (e.g., nerve injuries derived from local anesthetics (LA) or third molar extractions) are mainly transient, those derived from implant placement and endodontic procedures tend to extend beyond the immediate post-injury period and become permanent (3,4). When the symptomatology lasts longer than 3 months, the International Classification of Orofacial Pain (ICOP) has proposed to name these conditions as post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathic pain (PTTNP). Specific diagnostic criteria will be discussed later in this review.
Establishing the prevalence of TNI is challenging and likely underreported in the existing literature. Estimates range between 0.5% and 5% among individuals undergoing oral and maxillofacial procedures (5-7), but the exact figures may vary according to the specific etiology of the nerve injury. Accurate diagnosis of these complications, characterized by persistent painful and non-painful somatosensory changes, often occurs approximately 1 year post-injury due to the complexities of diagnosis (5,8). This diagnostic delay and the resulting somatosensory changes adversely impact the patient’s quality of life and psychosocial health, mainly when the symptoms are painful (9-12). Understanding the factors contributing to persistent trigeminal nerve-related complaints is critical for promptly adopting effective therapeutic management and preventive strategies. This starts with a thorough and informed consent process that precisely communicates the potential benefits and risks of the intervention (2). Yet, the literature indicates that only 30% of patients who later developed posttraumatic neuropathy of the trigeminal nerve received informed consent (12,13). Likewise, many were not informed about the potential risk of TNI (12,14). A comprehensive understanding of the types of dental procedures, coupled with early and late therapeutic options for these injuries, is crucial. Immediate intervention is emphasized for a more favorable prognosis (8,15), with the chance of improvement decreasing by almost 6% each month that elapses from the injury (16). Early management is also suggested to minimize chronification risk and prevent central sensitization states (8).
This review offers an overview of TNI, summarizing dental procedures responsible for nerve injuries, specifically focusing on dental anesthetic injections. It delves into early and late management strategies, along with diagnostic criteria for accurate diagnosis. By offering this comprehensive exploration, the review not only aims to educate about potential TNI but also informs clinicians of the importance of early management and prompt referral to minimize complications, ultimately enhancing patient care in dental practice. We present this article in accordance with the Narrative Review reporting checklist (available at https://joma.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/joma-24-5/rc).
Methods
The current study comprises a comprehensive literature review conducted on PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Ovid, and Web of Science, searching for English-language articles discussing injuries to the trigeminal nerve from dental procedures in human patients, regardless of the study design. Special attention was directed toward TNI associated with injections. As proposed in a previously published systematic review (17), the search strategy employed terms identifying injuries to the V2 and V3 branches of the trigeminal nerve [specifically the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN), the lingual nerve, or the maxillary nerve], such as “trigeminal nerve injuries” OR “posttraumatic neuropathy of trigeminal nerve” OR “posttraumatic trigeminal neuropathic pain” OR “altered sensation” OR “paresthesia” OR “allodynia” OR “neurosensory disturbance” OR “dysaesthesia”. These search terms were combined with those referring to dental procedures, specifically LA (e.g., “local anesthesia” OR “mandibular block analgesia” OR “mandibular injection” OR “dental injection” OR “inferior alveolar nerve block”) and diagnostic criteria (including terms such as “assessment”, OR “evaluation”, OR “diagnosis”). The last search was performed on the 19th of February 2024. Table 1 summarizes the search strategy of the present narrative review.
Table 1
Items | Specification |
---|---|
Date of search | December 20, 2023–February 19, 2024 |
Databases and other sources search | PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Ovid, Web of Science |
Search terms used | Trigeminal nerve injuries, posttraumatic neuropathy of trigeminal nerve, posttraumatic trigeminal neuropathic pain, altered sensation, paresthesia, allodynia, neurosensory disturbance, dysaesthesia, AND local anesthesia, mandibular block analgesia, mandibular injection, dental injection, inferior alveolar nerve block, AND diagnostic criteria |
Timeframe | January 1, 1951–February 19, 2024 |
Inclusion and exclusion criteria | Inclusion criteria: |
Articles discussing nerve injuries of the V2 and V3 branches of the trigeminal nerve following local injection procedures | |
Articles published in English language | |
Studies conducted in human patients, regardless of the study design | |
Exclusion criteria: | |
Absence of full text | |
Non-published scientific articles | |
Conference abstracts and opinions | |
Articles not in English language | |
Selection process | The search was conducted independently by two authors (L.S. and A.M.P.) and potential disagreements were discussed with a third author (A.A.B.) |
Classification of TNI
Various classifications have been proposed in the literature to categorize nerve injuries (18-23) and, by extension, predict the likelihood of recovery (Table 2) (24). The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) proposed a classification of chronic pain for the International Classification of Diseases, 11th revision (ICD-11); specifically, in its chronic neuropathic pain section, diagnostic criteria for painful neuropathic pain are described (25). It was suggested that suspected diagnosis of neuropathic pain requires specific investigations to ascertain that the pain originates in the nervous system, and that the distribution of pain should correspond to the underlying lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system (25). The neuroanatomical connection to the root cause should remain identifiable even if pain is not experienced throughout the entire area supplied by an affected peripheral nerve or nerve root. This also applies to the mapped representation of a lesion or illness in the central nervous system, or if the pain extends beyond these boundaries (25). Detectable objective signs of a sensory disorder within the pain’s distribution enhance diagnostic certainty. These signs may suggest a sensory impairment or exaggerated responses to typically painful (hyperalgesia) or non-painful stimuli (allodynia).
Table 2
Classification | Description | Clinical examples | Prognosis | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seddon [1943] | Sunderland [1951] | MacKinnon and Dellon [1988] | Lundborg [1988] | Birch and Bonney [1991] | |||
Neuropraxia | Class I | Class I | Physiological conduction block, type A | Non-degenerative | Focal segmental demyelination with partial/complete conduction block proximally; intact conduction block distally and proximally; intact surrounding connective tissue elements | Compression from hematoma, inflammation, nerve stretching, thermal changes, traction, mild injuries | Recovery within 4 weeks post-surgery, after the pressure or the swelling subside |
Physiological conduction block, type B | |||||||
Class II | Class II | Degenerative | Loss of axon and myelin sheath continuity, but intact endoneurium, distally sensory and motor deficits | More extensive compression from hematoma, direct contact with the bevelled barbed needle, nerve crush | Full recovery is possible within weeks without surgical intervention | ||
Class III | Class III | Damage to axon, myelin sheath and endoneurium, but intact perineurium | Direct contact with the bevelled barbed needle, nerve crush, severe mechanical crush, chemical, thermal trauma with Wallerian degeneration | Variable slow recovery (weeks/months); may necessitate surgical intervention | |||
Axonotmesis | Class IV | Class IV | Damage to axon, endoneurium and perineurium, but intact epineurium | Severe nerve compression, hematoma, stretching, edema, severe crush injuries, Wallerian degeneration, partial crush, traction, direct contact with the bevelled barbed needle, bone necrosis due to thermal injury (>47 ℃), direct nerve contact with caustic substances | Poor prognosis; highly unlikely spontaneous recovery; recovery in 5-11 weeks; surgical intervention is needed | ||
Neurotmesis | Class V | Class V | Complete conduction block (proximally and distally) and nerve transection (including axon, endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium, and myelin sheath) | Severe injury with neuroma, degeneration, sharp injuries, traction injuries, nerve transection, nerve laceration | No/poor prognosis; surgical intervention is needed | ||
Class VI | Mixed nerve injury | Gunshot wounds, stab wounds, closed traction damage | Incomplete recovery within months/years |
Descriptors of neurosensory disturbances as described by IASP are reported in Figure 1. Notably, the motor component remains unaffected, branching out before entering the IAN foramen.
![Click on image to zoom](http://cdn.amegroups.cn/journals/jss/files/journals/25/articles/6519/public/6519-PB6-3290-R1.jpg/w300)
Dental procedures associated with TNI
Within the field of dentistry, numerous procedures can potentially cause TNI, including LA, root canal treatments, tooth extractions, implants, and orthognathic surgery (Table 3). Interestingly, the intensity of pain and neurosensory impairment does not necessarily correlate to the invasiveness of the dental procedure, so much so that a straightforward procedure may lead to more post-operative pain than a more invasive one. This review will specifically discuss TNI originating from the administration of local dental anesthesia.
Table 3
Type of dental procedure | Prevalence | Somatosensory changes | Etiology | Risk factors | Prevention |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Local anesthetic administration | 1:14,000 blocks to 1:13,800,970 | 3.6% transient somatosensory disturbances; 1.8% permanent disturbances | Trauma, direct needle, indirect scarring, pressure ischemia from bleeding or LA, chemical irritants (LA agent, buffer, preservative, Hb carrying irritant Fe) | Technique: direct contact with the nerve, multiple injections | Avoid multiple infiltration, high concentration of LA, nerve contact during the injection |
Type of LA: high volume and concentration, bupivacaine | |||||
Lingual nerve, IAN block | |||||
Root canal treatments | 2–3% (especially 2nd lower molars and premolars) | 0.96%: non-painful vs. 3–13% painful neuropathy | Chemical damage: irrigation of canal medicaments, endodontic medicaments with pH different from body fluids, irritation from Hb-Fe | Inadequate preoperative assessment and planning (CBCT, X-ray) | Provide treatment in a timely manner; thorough assessment of pre-treatment radiograph |
Biological infection: extrusion of microorganisms | Anatomical proximity of tooth apex to the IAN canal or mental foramen | ||||
Physical damage: overfilling, loss of apical sealing, over-instrumentation, thermal damage from filling materials, compression of peripheral sensory nerve from cooling and contraction of filling materials | Inadequate technique (breach of apex, apical extrusion of canal medicaments, over instrumentation, overfilling) | ||||
Ischemia: from bleeding or endodontic preparation | Defects in the root and bone that enable the leakage of chemicals into the alveolar bone | ||||
Long-lasting baseline painful symptomatology | |||||
Tooth extractions | 0.5–6% | 2–6% temporary somatosensory changes; 0.5–2% permanent somatosensory changes | Physical damage: stretching, manipulation of the LN from tissue retraction, burr, surgical incision | Inadequate pre-operative radiographic assessment | CBCT has lower frequency of transient (but not permanent) IAN damage; use of local infiltration despite general anesthesia; modified flap for surgical access; coronectomy; pre-emptive analgesia; piezosurgery in lingual split approach; orthodontic extrusion |
Compression during postoperative care (edema, hemorrhage) | Anatomical proximity to IAN canal (21-fold higher risk of paresthesia) | ||||
Depth and position of tooth impaction: mesioangular and horizontal impaction (for IAN), and distoangular and horizontal (for LN) | |||||
Lingual position of the IAN canal to the 3rd molar root (16-fold higher risk) | |||||
Dumbbell shape of IAN canal | |||||
Use of general anesthesia (2- to 16-fold greater risk) | |||||
Surgical approach: odontosection | |||||
Exposure of IAN/lingual access surgery (LN) | |||||
Long duration (>20 min) | |||||
Implants | 0–40% (molar region and anterior to mental foramen) | 23%: transient deficits; 70%: permanent deficits | Direct trauma: surgical exposure, preparation of the osteotomy site, implant placement | Edentulous patients | Pre-emptive analgesia; through assessment of CBCT; patient risk assessment; use of LA infiltration; short implants (<10 mm); use of drill guides, stops, surgical stents; implant bed preparation above the safety zone (2 mm); intraoperative reassessment of implant bed depth with periapical radiograph at 60% of planned depth; post-operative periapical radiograph |
Indirect trauma: mechanical (hemorrhage, extrusion of debris, inflammation), chemical (Hb, iron), restoration (implant loading) | Inadequate assessment of pre-operative CBCT (bone quality and quantity, nerve localization and variation) | ||||
Long implants (>10 mm) | |||||
Proximity to IAN | |||||
No guides or drill stops during the preparation | |||||
Orthognathic surgery | 7.10% | – | IAN manipulation, nerve stretching, compression, entrapment, trauma from bony spicules between proximal and distal segments, screw overpenetration during segment fixation | Concomitant mandibular procedures (genioplasty) | Patient risk assessment |
LA, local anesthetic; Hb, hemoglobin; Fe, ferrous; IAN, inferior alveolar nerve; CBCT, cone beam computed tomography; LN, lingual nerve.
Risk factors
Several common risk factors associated with the development of TNI following dental procedures are attributed to the specific procedure, the provider, and the patient.
Inherent risk factors specific to the surgical dental procedure are outlined in Table 3. Overall, a thorough pre-operative assessment, including radiographs or cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), is crucial to minimize the risk of encountering unexpected anatomical variations.
Moreover, the experience of the dental provider has been suggested as a significant factor influencing the risk of TNI occurrence (26).
Patients with specific characteristics are more prone to developing posttraumatic neurosensory changes, including those with existing neuropathic pain (27), chronic widespread pain (i.e., fibromyalgia), heightened psychological distress (pain catastrophizing, anxiety, depression, fear avoidance, somatization, levels of physical activity, self-efficacy, neuroticism), older age (>50 years old), female gender, a pre-existing migraine condition (14), and pre-operative moderate-severe neuropathic pain (3,28,29). Vulnerable patients often exhibit impaired diffuse noxious inhibitory control. Specific genetic variants associated with mitochondrial phosphate carriers and calcium binding genes in the brain and dorsal root ganglia, such as SLC25A3 at chromosome 12q23.1 [odds ratio (OR) =1.68, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.40–2.02] and at 13q14.2 near CAB39L (OR =1.09, 95% CI: 1.05–1.14), have been identified to increase susceptibility to neuropathic pain (30). While studies have correlated genetic variants of COMT, OPRM1, TNFA, HLA, GCH1, and IL6 with an increased predisposition to neuropathic pain (31), particularly painful diabetic neuropathy, they have not precisely targeted injuries of the trigeminal nerve.
Diagnostic tests for identification of pre-existing neuropathic conditions
In cases where patients present with existing neuropathic pain at baseline, opting to avoid elective surgery is the recommended choice. Preoperative screening of patients can be conducted using validated diagnostic tools (32), including the following tests:
- Neuropathic Pain Questionnaire (NPQ), a 12-item questionnaire (ten sensory and two affect items) containing descriptors of neuropathic pain (33), or its short-form (NPQ-SF), where the 0–100 pain scale is combined with discriminant function coefficients of tingling, numbness, and increased pain to touch (34). A cut-off of ≥0 is used to establish the presence of neuropathic pain (34).
- Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (LANSS) consists of five items investigating sensory symptoms and two items on sensory clinical examination (35). Its modified self-reported version (S-LANSS) allows neuropathic pain screening without relying on clinical assessment (36). A cut-off of ≥12 suggests neuropathic pain (35).
- Douleur Neuropathique en 4 (DN4) is a 10-item questionnaire based on seven sensory symptom descriptors and three signs of clinical examination (37). A cut-off of ≥4 distinguishes neuropathic from non-neuropathic pain (37).
- PainDETECT is a self-reported questionnaire composed of seven sensory descriptive items and two spatial and temporal pain items (38). A cut-off of ≥19 suggests a neuropathic pain component (38).
- ID-Pain, a 6-item questionnaire comprising five sensory descriptors and one nociceptive pain item related to the joints (39).
All the above questionnaires can also be employed to monitor the progression of neuropathic and somatosensory changes during follow-up.
Despite being validated screening tools for overall neuropathic pain, their sensitivity and specificity are considered low when applied to the screening of trigeminal neuropathies (40-42), as they lack specificity for the orofacial region. Conversely, a more specific screening questionnaire has been developed to assist general dentists in the differential diagnosis of neuropathic pain derived from dental procedures from other types of orofacial pain, such as trigeminal neuralgia, acute odontogenic pain, and temporomandibular disorders (43). This questionnaire is a 10-item instrument that has been proven to exhibit a sensitivity of 77% and a specificity of 69% (43). Other questionnaires have been designed to monitor treatment response, such as the Neuropathic Pain Scale (44).
Diagnostic tests for identification and quantification of neuropathic conditions
Clinical diagnostic tests compare the affected with the unaffected side to examine the presence, extension, and severity of neurosensory disturbances (for a detailed review, refer to (17). These include the following:
- Clinical neurosensory tests consist of noninvasive chairside tests which inspect the sensory components of the trigeminal nerve. These include static 2-point discrimination, dynamic 2-point discrimination, sharp-blunt discrimination, pinprick sensation, light touch, and thermal warm/cold differentiation (17). These sensory modalities can be tested utilizing unexpensive tools, such as cotton wisp, Q-tip, pressure gauge, or blunt tip (45,46), or more sophisticated instruments, such as von Frey or Semmes Weinstein monofilaments (47,48).
- Thermal quantitative sensory testing (QST) measures the thermal (cold or heat) detection threshold, pain threshold and tolerance to the application of a thermode of different size, frequency of stimuli, rate of ascending/descending temperature on the affected area (17). Thermal thresholds mainly test the function of thinly unmyelinated C-fibers and polymodal nociceptors; Aδ fibers and peripheral nerve afferents can also be involved (49).
- Electrical QST quantifies the electrical detection thresholds by applying an electrode to the nerve distribution. It tests the function of thickly myelinated Aβ fibers (50).
- Neurophysiological techniques include nerve conduction studies, measure of somatosensory-evoked potentials, laser-evoked potentials, contact-heat-evoked potentials, and trigeminal blink reflexes (51). Neurophysiological tools mainly test large non-nociceptive Aβ fibers as well as small nociceptive afferent fibers (51).
- Electromyography can be utilized as a measure of severity of nerve injury, by comparing amplitude and latency of sensory action potentials provoked by electrical stimuli (48).
Clinical diagnostic tests can also be utilized to monitor symptoms evolution over time.
Injection-related TNI
The administration of LA is generally deemed safe in healthy individuals. Nevertheless, although rare, documented cases in the literature report injection-related TNI, particularly affecting the inferior alveolar and lingual nerves. A distinctive aspect of dental practice is that, in contrast to other medical specialties, dental providers actively target the nerve during local anesthesia (LA) administration rather than avoiding direct contact (2). Although the exact mechanism is still debated, neurosensory disturbances are proposed to derive from intraneural hematoma formation leading to scar and reactive fibrosis (52-57), direct trauma caused by the beveled barbed needle (56,57), and neurotoxicity resulting from intrafascicular injection or needle withdrawal (57-60). The neurotoxicity is attributed to the presence of alcohols or sterilizing agents in the anesthetic solution or on the needle itself (57) or the release of reactive free radicals in response to the ischemia induced by edema (61). Irrespective of the exact mechanism, sensory disturbances may arise from the disruption of neural transmission.
Incidence
The incidence of injection-related TNI ranges from approximately 1 in 14,000 to 1 in 13,800,970 cases per injection (14,53,54,60,62-64). Their occurrence is more pronounced when associated with oral surgery procedures, with incidence rates reported as 1 in every 3,300 local injections. Nevertheless, this estimate is likely underestimated due to the high number of unreported cases in private practice. It has been proposed that each actively practicing provider may encounter 4 to 6 temporary and one permanent TNI during their career (2).
Risk factors
Certain anesthetics are more commonly associated with injection-related TNI, including articaine 4%, lidocaine 2%, mepivacaine 3%, and prilocaine 3% (53,63,65-70). Notably, it is suggested that a 4% formulation is more frequently associated with TNI than the type of anesthetic itself (54,58,62). Particularly in cases involving the lingual nerve, patients are more likely to receive multiple injections and may report pain or an electric shock sensation during the injection procedure (53,57,71). Nevertheless, even though indicative of direct needle contact with the nerve trunk (72), an electric shock sensation occurs in 1.3–8% of all mandibular anesthetic blocks and is not always associated with TNI (53,55,57,73-75). However, clinicians are advised to document instances when patients report an electric shock sensation during anesthesia administration (2).
The lingual nerve appears to be more frequently associated with neurosensory disturbances than the IAN following a mandibular block (58,59); and the incidence of injection-related TNI seems higher in females (76).
Prevention
There are, to date, no established means of preventing injection-related TNI, partly due to a lack of understanding of the etiological mechanism (53,57). Some studies have proposed favoring buccal infiltration and avoiding anesthetic blocks when feasible (71,77). It has also been suggested to avoid 4% formulation when possible (44,48,52).
Clinical manifestation
Injection-related TNI primarily present as anesthesia, hypoesthesia, hyperalgesia, taste alteration, dysesthesia, allodynia, and burning pain (71,72,78), predominantly affecting the lingual nerve (14,79). The unifascicular nature of the lingual nerve, as opposed to the multifascicular IAN, has been suggested as a potential reason (79), along with its thicker perineurium, which may result in greater endoneurial pressure and the inclusion of all axons in the event of haemorrhage (80).
Functional interference
Patients experiencing injection-related TNI may express difficulties with eating, drinking, speaking, and social interaction (71). Sleep disturbance and mechanical allodynia have also been reported during activities such as shaving and make-up application (71).
Prognosis
Neurosensory disturbances of TNI derived from LA are anticipated to resolve within 8 weeks in 85–94% of the cases (14,53,57), although other studies indicate a poorer prognosis (55,59), with approximately 25–29% of these injuries being permanent (14,64). Injuries associated with the lingual nerve are more likely to be permanent, possibly due to the higher mobility of the nerve, the lower number of fascicles compared to the IAN, and the absence of protection provided by a bony canal (53,59,71,76).
Early management of TNI
Figure 2 depicts a flowchart outlining the early management of TNI (3,81), regardless of their etiology. The diagram underscores the importance of prompt identification, intervention, and pharmacological management. If nerve damage is evident, a range of micro-surgical interventions (e.g., guided nerve regeneration, redirection to a different anatomic location, nerve capping, graft, neurectomy, internal neurolysis, etc.) is advisable. Conversely, in cases where nerve damage is not suspected, clarification of normal post-operative expectations should be provided, and regular follow-up maintained, whether or not a nerve intervention procedure was performed or nerve damage was suspected. Specifically, if an electric shock sensation is reported during local infiltration, initial steps involve monitoring and reassuring the patient the following day. If altered sensation or abnormal pain persists after the dental procedure, a detailed history, clinical examination, and assessment of somatosensory changes should be conducted. A combination of numbness, altered sensation, pain, or taste alterations raises concerns and requires further evaluation. Clinical examination involves mapping the affected dermatome area for initial assessment and monitoring of disease progression in future follow-ups. Comparison with the unaffected side should assess responses to light touch, sharp, blunt discrimination, two-point discrimination, and thermal sensation (3).
In confirmed cases of TNI, early management and intervention depend on the duration and etiology of TNI, ranging from implant removal to addressing endodontic overfilling. On the contrary, injection-related TNI is typically managed pharmacologically (3), with no recommended surgical intervention for such cases (14). Early management involves a high dosage of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (400–800 mg oral ibuprofen, four times/day or ibuprofen + paracetamol), oral prednisolone for gradual tapering, and a vitamin B complex (i.e., riboflavin 400 mg once daily + other vitamin B for max 90 days) (Table 4) (2). Referral to the orofacial pain specialist is also advised.
Table 4
Class of drug | Medication/strength | Direction | Contraindications |
---|---|---|---|
Early management (<6 weeks) | |||
Steroids | Methylprednisolone 4 mg tablets | Tapering dose | Contraindicated in patients with diabetes, infection, immunocompromised, uncontrolled hyperglycemia, peptic ulcer, glaucoma, thromboembolic disorders |
Prednisone 20 mg tablets | 13-day regimen 60 mg for 7 days → 40 mg for 3 days → 20 mg for 3 days | ||
Dexamethasone 3/4 mg tablets | 6-day regimen: 4 mg 2 tablets for 3 days → 3 mg 1 tablet for 3 days | ||
NSAIDs | Ibuprofen 400–800 mg | TID for a max of 3 months | GI ulcers, bleeding, Helicobacter pylori infection, advanced kidney disease, heart failure, third trimester of pregnancy, hypersensitivity, allergy |
NSAIDs + acetaminophen | Every 6 hours | Severe hepatic disease, renal failure, hypersensitivity | |
Vitamin B complex | Riboflavin (B2) 400 mg | 400 mg QD for 3 months | Known hypersensitivity |
Late management (>6 weeks) | |||
First line | |||
Antiepileptics | Gabapentin | 1,200–3,600 mg, divided in 3 doses | Myasthenia gravis, myoclonus |
Gabapentin ER, enacarbil | 1,200–3,600 mg, divided in 2 doses | Myasthenia gravis, myoclonus | |
Pregabalin | 300–600 mg, divided in 2 doses | Known hypersensitivity | |
SNRIs | Duloxetine | 60–120 mg QD | Concurrent or recent therapy with MAO inhibitors, uncontrolled angle-closure glaucoma, or hypersensitivity |
Venlafaxine | 150–225 mg QD | Concurrent use of MAO inhibitors | |
Tricyclic antidepressants | Amitriptyline, nortriptyline | 25–125 mg QD or divided in 2 doses | Arrhythmias, QTc prolongation, recent myocardial infarction, heart failure, cardiovascular disease, angle-closure glaucoma, cardiovascular disease |
Second line | |||
Extraoral topical medications | Capsaicin 8% patches* | One to four patches applied on the painful area for 30–60 min every 3 months | Known hypersensitivity |
Lidocaine patches | One to three patches applied on the painful area once a day for up to 12 h | History of sensitivity to local anesthetics of the amide type, or to any other component | |
Intraoral topical medications# | Benzocaine/lidocaine gel | Apply to affected area no more than 4 times/day | Known hypersensitivity, children under 2 years of age |
Capsaicin 0.1% gel* | Apply to affected area no more than 3–4 times/day | Known hypersensitivity |
*, not approved for facial or intraoral use; #, there are no official recommendations for concentrations of local anesthesia or capsaicin for intraoral use. NSAIDs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; SNRIs, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors; ER, extended release; TID, three times per day; QD, once a day; GI, gastrointestinal; MAO, monoamine oxidase.
Late-phase pharmacological management is indicated when somatosensory changes persist, primarily involving neuropathic pain medications, as further explained below.
Prognosis
Predictive factors for long-term (i.e., >6 months) persistence of somatosensory disturbance include sex (females > males, OR =2.23), older age (OR =1.03), higher number of painful comorbidities (OR =26.20), maxillary nerve lesions (OR =3.05), presence of thermal (OR =5.10) and mechanical hyperesthesia (OR =2.10), initiating events identified by endodontic treatment (OR =1.07) and implant placement (OR =1.86), and higher pain scores (OR =3.39) (4). In addition, more proximal lesions to the cell body typically display a poorer prognosis (2). Conversely, the higher chance of recovery was related to etiology associated to the administration of LA (OR =0.08) and third molar surgery (OR =0.36) (4).
PTTNP
When the somatosensory changes persist after the immediate post-injury period and extend beyond 3 months, various organizations have proposed different terminologies to define this entity (Figure 3). This condition falls within the broader umbrella of neuropathic pain, defined by the IASP as “pain that arises as a direct consequence of a lesion or diseases affecting the somatosensory system” (32). Adhering to the latest classification (ICOP), these disorders are categorized as PTTNP, defined as unilateral/bilateral facial or oral pain resulting from trigeminal nerve trauma accompanied by clinical signs and/or symptoms of trigeminal nerve dysfunction persisting for more than 3 months.
![Click on image to zoom](http://cdn.amegroups.cn/journals/jss/files/journals/25/articles/6519/public/6519-PB8-6450-R1.jpg/w300)
Pain should manifest within the distribution of the affected nerve within 6 months of the injury. A history of TNI (i.e., mechanical, chemical, thermal, or radiation) should be reported, and diagnostic tests should be used to confirm the nerve lesion. Additionally, associated somatosensory signs and/or symptoms should be observed within the same nerve distribution. The pain, which is neuropathic in nature and is often described as stabbing and/or burning (11,82), rarely crosses the midline (83). Notably, the diagnostic criteria require a minimum of 3 months of persistent pain before a diagnosis is provided.
Derived from the framework of neuropathic pain affecting other body parts (84), PTTNP should be classified as possible when supported solely by the patient’s history; probable when supported by both history and clinical examination [QST and bedside qualitative sensory testing (QualST)]; and definite, when diagnostic testing confirms the condition (83,85). A recently published consensus guideline on TNI has underscored the importance of QualST in achieving an accurate diagnosis of TNI, whereas QST is recommended for cases where QualST results are inconsistent (8). Available diagnostic tests to confirm the diagnosis include imaging (i.e., magnetic resonance neurography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging studies) (86); surgical exploration of lesion or compression; neurophysiologic diagnostic tests such as laser-evoked potentials, contact heat-evoked potentials, blink reflex, corneal confocal microscopy, nerve conduction study; skin biopsy confirming reduced nerve fiber terminals (32).
Management of PTTNP
Table 4 summarizes the most established therapeutical options for late management of PTTNP (>6 weeks).
In most cases of PTTNP, where the likelihood of achieving a cure is minimal, a palliative strategy based on the recommendations for addressing peripheral neuropathic pain conditions may be employed. There is a lack of randomized clinical trials involving thoroughly characterized patients with PTTNP, and most recommendations apply to neuropathic pain in general (6,87,88).
For systemic management of PTTNP, tricyclic antidepressants (TCA), serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor antidepressants, especially duloxetine, gabapentinoids (i.e., pregabalin, gabapentin, gabapentin extended-release), and enacarbil are strongly recommended as first-line treatments for neuropathic pain and supported by moderate to high-quality evidence (87). To improve efficacy and reduce adverse effects, a combination of pregabalin or gabapentin with duloxetine or TCA may be suggested (89).
Drug selection is contingent upon patient-related factors, including the presence of systemic comorbidities, age, and drug adverse effect profile (90,91). For example, systemic medications pose numerous challenges, particularly for elderly patients, those with systemic conditions, and individuals taking multiple drugs, as potential interactions and adverse effects may compromise treatment adherence (92,93). In these instances, a topical approach may be considered either independently or in conjunction with systemic medications (94).
For extraoral persistent PTTNP, topical administration of LA or capsaicin may be utilized, provided that any contact with the eyes is avoided. LA and capsaicin patches are commercially available and may offer greater comfort during application. Despite the successful application of 8% capsaicin patch for conditions such as trigeminal neuropathy, its use on the face is not approved due to its very high concentration and its proximity to mucous membranes (i.e., eyes and oral cavity).
Intraorally, certain areas may also be suitable for topical treatments, with the aid of a customized soft splint designed to cover the affected regions, frequently termed as “neurostent”. This neurostent allows for the application of LA, capsaicin alone or in combination under occlusion, minimizing the risk of the compounds spreading to other parts of the oral cavity and/or pharynx. Currently, there are no official recommendations regarding the concentrations of LA or capsaicin for intraoral use; however, a concentration of 0.1% capsaicin is likely the maximum tolerable to prevent excessive discomfort during application. For LA, commercially available lidocaine or benzocaine gels or creams can be utilized (6). Topical compounded medications, such as TCA, anticonvulsants, or a combination thereof, may be employed in some instances. Nonetheless, insufficient data is available regarding the safety and effectiveness of utilizing these medications via topical application (95).
Conclusions
TNI derived from dental procedures represent a potential consequence that patients should be informed about during the consent process. Although a relatively rare instance, injuries resulting from anesthetic injections are documented in the literature and merit attention and understanding from dental practitioners, especially considering the widespread use of LA during dental procedures. While around 75% of injection-related injuries exhibit spontaneous recovery within the initial weeks, a notable proportion leads to persistent somatosensory changes, negatively impacting patients’ quality of life. Strategies to mitigate the risk of injection-related TNI are outlined, advocating for practices such as avoiding anesthetic blocks, minimizing anesthetic concentration, and limiting multiple injections. Early identification and management of TNI are essential, as timely intervention substantially enhances prognosis. Predictive factors associated with patients, procedures, and providers are identified to aid clinicians in careful treatment planning, facilitating informed patient discussions about potential risks, and minimizing legal ramifications. In cases where chronic PTTNP persists, appropriate management necessitates referral and long-term use of neuropathic pain medications.
Acknowledgments
Funding: None.
Footnote
Reporting Checklist: The authors have completed the Narrative Review reporting checklist. Available at https://joma.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/joma-24-5/rc
Peer Review File: Available at https://joma.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/joma-24-5/prf
Conflicts of Interest: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at https://joma.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/joma-24-5/coif). The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolves.
Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
References
- Van der Cruyssen F, Politis C. Neurophysiological aspects of the trigeminal sensory system: an update. Rev Neurosci 2018;29:115-23. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Renton T. Trigeminal Nerve Injuries. In: Bonanthaya K, Panneerselvam E, Manuel S, et al. editors. Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery for the Clinician. Singapore: Springer, 2021.
- Renton T, Van der Cruyssen F. Diagnosis, pathophysiology, management and future issues of trigeminal surgical nerve injuries. Oral Surg 2019;13:389-403. [Crossref]
- Van der Cruyssen F, Peeters F, De Laat A, et al. Prognostic factors, symptom evolution, and quality of life of posttraumatic trigeminal neuropathy. Pain 2022;163:e557-71. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Klazen Y, Van der Cruyssen F, Vranckx M, et al. Iatrogenic trigeminal post-traumatic neuropathy: a retrospective two-year cohort study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2018;47:789-93. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Baad-Hansen L, Benoliel R. Neuropathic orofacial pain: Facts and fiction. Cephalalgia 2017;37:670-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Miloro M. Trigeminal Nerve Injuries. 1st edition. Springer; 2015.
- Van der Cruyssen F, Palla B, Jacobs R, et al. Consensus guidelines on training, diagnosis, treatment and follow-up care of trigeminal nerve injuries. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2024;53:68-77. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Smith JG, Elias LA, Yilmaz Z, et al. The psychosocial and affective burden of posttraumatic neuropathy following injuries to the trigeminal nerve. J Orofac Pain 2013;27:293-303. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Melek LN, Smith JG, Karamat A, et al. Comparison of the Neuropathic Pain Symptoms and Psychosocial Impacts of Trigeminal Neuralgia and Painful Posttraumatic Trigeminal Neuropathy. J Oral Facial Pain Headache 2019;33:77-88. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Van der Cruyssen F, Peeters F, Gill T, et al. Signs and symptoms, quality of life and psychosocial data in 1331 post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathy patients seen in two tertiary referral centres in two countries. J Oral Rehabil 2020;47:1212-21. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Renton T, Yilmaz Z. Profiling of patients presenting with posttraumatic neuropathy of the trigeminal nerve. J Orofac Pain 2011;25:333-44. [PubMed]
- Renton T. Trigeminal nerve injuries related to restorative treatment. Dent Update. 2018;45:522-40. [Crossref]
- Renton T. Trigeminal nerve injuries. Austr Endod J. 2018;44:159-69. [Crossref]
- Zuniga JR, Neal T. How Does Changing the Time to Surgery Affect the Recurrence of Post-Traumatic Trigeminal Neuropathic Pain. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2023;81:265-71. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Bagheri SC, Meyer RA, Khan HA, et al. Retrospective review of microsurgical repair of 222 lingual nerve injuries. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2010;68:715-23. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Devine M, Hirani M, Durham J, et al. Identifying criteria for diagnosis of post-traumatic pain and altered sensation of the maxillary and mandibular branches of the trigeminal nerve: a systematic review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2018;125:526-40. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Mackinnon SE, Dellon A. Nerve repair and nerve grafts. In: Surgery of the Peripheral Nerve. 1st edition. New Work, USA: Ed Thieme; 1988.
- Sunderland S. The function of nerve fibers whose structure has been disorganized. Anat Rec 1951;109:503-13. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Sunderland S. Nerve injuries and their repair: a critical appraisal. New York, USA: Churchill Livingstone; 1991.
- Lundborg G. Nerve injury and repair. New York, USA: Churchill Livingstone; 1988.
- Birch R, Bonney G, Dowell J, et al. Iatrogenic injuries of peripheral nerves. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1991;73:280-2. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Seddon HJ. Three types of nerve injury. Brain 1943;66:237-88. [Crossref]
- Kwon G, Hohman MH. Inferior Alveolar Nerve and Lingual Nerve Injury. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
- Scholz J, Finnerup NB, Attal N, et al. The IASP classification of chronic pain for ICD-11: chronic neuropathic pain. Pain 2019;160:53-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Kang F, Sah MK, Fei G. Determining the risk relationship associated with inferior alveolar nerve injury following removal of mandibular third molar teeth: A systematic review. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg 2020;121:63-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Zuniga JR, Yates DM, Phillips CL. The presence of neuropathic pain predicts postoperative neuropathic pain following trigeminal nerve repair. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2014;72:2422-7. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Kehlet H, Jensen TS, Woolf CJ. Persistent postsurgical pain: risk factors and prevention. Lancet 2006;367:1618-25. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Neal TW, Zuniga JR. Is Presurgical Pain Intensity Related to Postoperative Recurrence of Post-Traumatic Trigeminal Neuropathic Pain? J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2023;81:806-12. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Veluchamy A, Hébert HL, van Zuydam NR, et al. Association of Genetic Variant at Chromosome 12q23.1 With Neuropathic Pain Susceptibility. JAMA Netw Open 2021;4:e2136560. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Veluchamy A, Hébert HL, Meng W, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of genetic risk factors for neuropathic pain. Pain 2018;159:825-48. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Haanpää M, Attal N, Backonja M, et al. NeuPSIG guidelines on neuropathic pain assessment. Pain 2011;152:14-27. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Krause SJ, Backonja MM. Development of a neuropathic pain questionnaire. Clin J Pain 2003;19:306-14. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Backonja MM, Krause SJ. Neuropathic pain questionnaire--short form. Clin J Pain 2003;19:315-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Bennett M. The LANSS Pain Scale: the Leeds assessment of neuropathic symptoms and signs. Pain 2001;92:147-57. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Bennett MI, Smith BH, Torrance N, et al. The S-LANSS score for identifying pain of predominantly neuropathic origin: validation for use in clinical and postal research. J Pain 2005;6:149-58. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Bouhassira D, Attal N, Alchaar H, et al. Comparison of pain syndromes associated with nervous or somatic lesions and development of a new neuropathic pain diagnostic questionnaire (DN4). Pain 2005;114:29-36. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Freynhagen R, Baron R, Gockel U, et al. painDETECT: a new screening questionnaire to identify neuropathic components in patients with back pain. Curr Med Res Opin 2006;22:1911-20. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Portenoy R. Development and testing of a neuropathic pain screening questionnaire: ID Pain. Curr Med Res Opin 2006;22:1555-65. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Elias LA, Yilmaz Z, Smith JG, et al. PainDETECT: a suitable screening tool for neuropathic pain in patients with painful post-traumatic trigeminal nerve injuries? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2014;43:120-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Herrero Babiloni A, Nixdorf DR, Law AS, et al. Initial accuracy assessment of the modified S-LANSS for the detection of neuropathic orofacial pain conditions. Quintessence Int 2017;48:419-29. [PubMed]
- Klasser GD, Roremo-Reyes M. Neuropathic Pain. In: Orofacial Pain. Guidelines for Assessment, Diagnosis, and Management. 7th edition. Quintessence Publishing Co, Inc.; 2023.
- Durham J, Stone SJ, Robinson LJ, et al. Development and preliminary evaluation of a new screening instrument for atypical odontalgia and persistent dentoalveolar pain disorder. Int Endod J 2019;52:279-87. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Gray P. Acute neuropathic pain: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008;21:590-5. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Walter JM Jr, Gregg JM. Analysis of postsurgical neurologic alteration in the trigeminal nerve. J Oral Surg 1979;37:410-4. [PubMed]
- Svensson P, Drangsholt M, Pfau DB, et al. Neurosensory testing of orofacial pain in the dental clinic. J Am Dent Assoc 2012;143:e37-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Siqueira SR, Siviero M, Alvarez FK, et al. Quantitative sensory testing in trigeminal traumatic neuropathic pain and persistent idiopathic facial pain. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2013;71:174-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Jääskeläinen SK, Teerijoki-Oksa T, Forssell H. Neurophysiologic and quantitative sensory testing in the diagnosis of trigeminal neuropathy and neuropathic pain. Pain 2005;117:349-57. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Bernard MA, Howard JW. Electromyography and Evoked Potentials. In: Benzon HT, Rathmell JP, Wu CL, et al. editors. Practical Management of Pain. 5th edition. Mosby; 2014:162-184.e4.
- Eliav E, Gracely RH, Nahlieli O, et al. Quantitative sensory testing in trigeminal nerve damage assessment. J Orofac Pain 2004;18:339-44. [PubMed]
- Truini A. A Review of Neuropathic Pain: From Diagnostic Tests to Mechanisms. Pain Ther 2017;6:5-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Hoffmeister B. Morphological changes of peripheral nerves following intraneural injection of local anesthetic. Dtsch Zahnarztl Z 1991;46:828-30. [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA, Thamby S. Permanent nerve involvement resulting from inferior alveolar nerve blocks. J Am Dent Assoc 2000;131:901-7. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Haas DA, Lennon D A. 21 year retrospective study of reports of paresthesia following local anesthetic administration. J Can Dent Assoc 1995;61:319-30. [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA, Bryan J, Regezi J. Nerve damage associated with inferior alveolar nerve blocks. J Am Dent Assoc 1995;126:1150-5. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Stacy GC, Hajjar G. Barbed needle and inexplicable paresthesias and trismus after dental regional anesthesia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1994;77:585-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Smith MH, Lung KE. Nerve injuries after dental injection: a review of the literature. J Can Dent Assoc 2006;72:559-64. [PubMed]
- Gaffen AS, Haas DA. Retrospective review of voluntary reports of nonsurgical paresthesia in dentistry. J Can Dent Assoc 2009;75:579. [PubMed]
- Hillerup S, Jensen R. Nerve injury caused by mandibular block analgesia. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006;35:437-43. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Tan YZ, Shi RJ, Ke BW, et al. Paresthesia in dentistry: The ignored neurotoxicity of local anesthetics. Heliyon 2023;9:e18031. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Saray A, Apan A, Kisa U. Free radical-induced damage in experimental peripheral nerve injection injury. J Reconstr Microsurg 2003;19:401-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Garisto GA, Gaffen AS, Lawrence HP, et al. Occurrence of paresthesia after dental local anesthetic administration in the United States. J Am Dent Assoc 2010;141:836-44. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA. Permanent nerve damage from inferior alveolar nerve blocks: a current update. J Calif Dent Assoc 2012;40:795-7. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Renton T, Janjua H, Gallagher JE, et al. UK dentists' experience of iatrogenic trigeminal nerve injuries in relation to routine dental procedures: why, when and how often? Br Dent J 2013;214:633-42. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA. Permanent nerve damage from inferior alveolar nerve blocks--an update to include articaine. J Calif Dent Assoc 2007;35:271-3. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- van Eeden SP, Patel MF. Re: prolonged paraesthesia following inferior alveolar nerve block using articaine. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2002;40:519-20. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Haas DA. Articaine and paresthesia: epidemiological studies. J Am Coll Dent 2006;73:5-10. [PubMed]
- Wynn RL, Bergman SA, Meiller TF. Paresthesia associated with local anesthetics: a perspective on articaine. Gen Dent 2003;51:498-501. [PubMed]
- Gaffen AS, Haas DA. Survey of local anesthetic use by Ontario dentists. J Can Dent Assoc 2009;75:649. [PubMed]
- Hillerup S, Jensen RH, Ersbøll BK. Trigeminal nerve injury associated with injection of local anesthetics: needle lesion or neurotoxicity? J Am Dent Assoc 2011;142:531-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Renton T, Adey-Viscuso D, Meechan JG, et al. Trigeminal nerve injuries in relation to the local anaesthesia in mandibular injections. Br Dent J 2010;209:E15. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA, Kaban LB. Injuries to the inferior alveolar and lingual nerves. J Calif Dent Assoc 1993;21:50-4. [PubMed]
- Krafft TC, Hickel R. Clinical investigation into the incidence of direct damage to the lingual nerve caused by local anaesthesia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 1994;22:294-6. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Lustig JP, Zusman SP. Immediate complications of local anesthetic administered to 1,007 consecutive patients. J Am Dent Assoc 1999;130:496-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Harn SD, Durham TM. Incidence of lingual nerve trauma and postinjection complications in conventional mandibular block anesthesia. J Am Dent Assoc 1990;121:519-23. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA, Thamby S. The etiology of altered sensation in the inferior alveolar, lingual, and mental nerves as a result of dental treatment. J Calif Dent Assoc 1999;27:531-534-8. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Meechan JG. Infiltration anesthesia in the mandible. Dent Clin North Am 2010;54:621-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Tay AB, Zuniga JR. Clinical characteristics of trigeminal nerve injury referrals to a university centre. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2007;36:922-7. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Pogrel MA, Schmidt BL, Sambajon V, et al. Lingual nerve damage due to inferior alveolar nerve blocks: a possible explanation. J Am Dent Assoc 2003;134:195-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Tan VL, Andrawos A, Ghabriel MN, et al. Applied anatomy of the lingual nerve: relevance to dental anaesthesia. Arch Oral Biol 2014;59:324-35. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Zuniga JR, Renton TF. Managing post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathic pain: is surgery enough? J Neurol Neuromedicine 2016;1:10-4. [Crossref]
- Benoliel R, Zadik Y, Eliav E, et al. Peripheral painful traumatic trigeminal neuropathy: clinical features in 91 cases and proposal of novel diagnostic criteria. J Orofac Pain 2012;26:49-58. [PubMed]
- International Classification of Orofacial Pain, 1st edition (ICOP). Cephalalgia 2020;40:129-221.
- International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Neuropathic pain. Available online: https://www.iasp-pain.org/advocacy/global-year/neuropathic-pain/ (accessed on January 01, 2024).
- Finnerup NB, Haroutounian S, Kamerman P, et al. Neuropathic pain: an updated grading system for research and clinical practice. Pain 2016;157:1599-606. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Martín Noguerol T, Barousse R, Gómez Cabrera M, et al. Functional MR Neurography in Evaluation of Peripheral Nerve Trauma and Postsurgical Assessment. Radiographics 2019;39:427-46. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Finnerup NB, Attal N, Haroutounian S, et al. Pharmacotherapy for neuropathic pain in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 2015;14:162-73. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Finnerup NB, Sindrup SH, Jensen TS. The evidence for pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain. Pain 2010;150:573-81. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Chaparro LE, Wiffen PJ, Moore RA, et al. Combination pharmacotherapy for the treatment of neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;2012:CD008943. [PubMed]
- Kohli D, Katzmann G, Benoliel R, et al. Diagnosis and management of persistent posttraumatic trigeminal neuropathic pain secondary to implant therapy: A review. J Am Dent Assoc 2021;152:483-90. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Quintero GC. Review about gabapentin misuse, interactions, contraindications and side effects. J Exp Pharmacol 2017;9:13-21. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Dhaliwal JS, Spurling BC, Molla M. Duloxetine. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
- Singh D, Saadabadi A. Venlafaxine. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
- Renton T, Yilmaz Z. Managing iatrogenic trigeminal nerve injury: a case series and review of the literature. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2012;41:629-37. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- National Academies of Sciences E, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Board on Health Sciences Policy; Committee on the Assessment of the Available Scientific Data Regarding the Safety and Effectiveness of Ingredients Used in Compounded Topical Pain Creams; Jackson LM, Schwinn DA, editors. Compounded Topical Pain Creams: Review of Select Ingredients for Safety, Effectiveness, and Use. In: A Review of the Safety and Effectiveness of Select Ingredients in Compounded Topical Pain Creams. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2020. Available online: https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/books/NBK560339/
Cite this article as: Sangalli L, Fernandez-Vial D, Martinez-Porras A, Brazzoli S, Alessandri-Bonetti A. Trigeminal neuropathies following dental anesthetic blocks: a review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Anesth 2024;3:14.